American Intervention in Soviet-Afghan War Essay Example for Free

American Intervention in Soviet-Afghan War Essay During the Cold War, the United States resolved to take a shot at the Soviet Union by siding with Afghanistan and taking great measures to stop Soviet influence and communist ideology. In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in an attempt to expand its influence in the Middle East with the absence of American influence. At this point in the Cold War the United States and Soviet Union were more or less at the climax of their dilemma, so the U. S. therefore decided to get involved by fortifying Afghan’s primary rebellious group, the mujahidin. The United States jeopardized homeland security by providing significant support to mujahidin revolutionaries, and in doing so the U. S. helped them hinder Soviet rule over Afghanistan. There are plenty of reasons ratifying America’s lack of foresight and prudence, one being that the state of the Soviet Union was not great as it was. One should take into consideration that the Soviet Union was already in a drastic decline when the United States began to intercede in Soviet-Afghan affairs. Benjamin Frankel, an esteemed writer who wrote an article for History in Dispute, described how there was a prolonged controversy in the Soviet Union on the topic of how to proceed with communist policies (14). Secondly, America already expressed its hard-line policy toward the USSR in a more detrimental way. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan established the Strategic Defense Initiative to protect the U. S. from potential ballistic missile attacks by the Soviet Union. In total, as the ABC-Clio database prescribes in paragraph ten of â€Å"Cold War, 1945-1991†, the USSR spent approximately $80 billion on the Soviet-Afghan War. The fall of the USSR was hastened by its lofty spending on the unnecessary cause. Similar to the economic problems in the Soviet Union, the United States’ actions concerning Soviet-Afghan affairs inflicted great burdens upon the U. S. economy. The United States wasted a substantial amount of money in order to aid mujahidin rebels so they could counteract their Soviet oppressors, but received no compensation in return. As an unknown author from Mount Holyoke College estimates in â€Å"Origins of the Taliban†, the United States lost about $3 billion just on funding these covert ops. The mujahidin and Afghanistan as a whole provided little in return. The mujahidin, for one, only used America for what it provided and discarded the country once transactions were complete. Also, Afghanistan contained insufficient natural resources compared to its Middle-Eastern counterparts. In addition to this action’s negative impact on the U. S. economy, it was also unjustified by the United States’ failure in persuading Afghans to convert to its political viewpoints. The United States did not spread democracy or even impede the Soviet Union’s communist influence on Afghanistan. Instead of acting how it did, the United States should have allowed Afghanistan to develope itself and figure out its own problems to an extent. One sign of progression in the country occurred in the mid-2000s when Afghanistan held its first presidential election. For example, Canada has benefitted by having the foreign policy of isolationism. Shifting back to the mujahidin, Benjamin Frankel describes it, stating, â€Å"Once they helped to push the Soviets out of Afghanistan, they turned their attention to the hated ‘infidel’ West and its ‘satanic’ leader, the United States† (16). Benjamin Frankel went on to speak of how the Afghans were apathetic toward the message of democracy, while they already disdained the ideology of communism (16). These reasons explain why the two parties never became allies and split ways once the Soviets withdrew in 1989. Sometime in the midst of the United States attempting to spread democracy in Afghanistan, the Jimmy Carter regime passed an embargo on wheat and corn against Russia as another attempt to burden the Soviet Union. The Russian Grain Embargo, enacted in 1980, had a negative financial impact on American farmers. This act was drawn up to reciprocate the past ongoing tensions between the United States and Soviet Union which heightened when the United States began to help the mujahidin in 1979. On the subject of U. S. and USSR trade, representative George McGovern stated at a 1980 Senate hearing in paragraph ten on the Annals of American History database that agricultural produce took up 75% of their trade. With this lack of trade, the USSR and U.  S. each deeply suffered. As a result of the Russian Grain Embargo, prices on a bushel of wheat dropped 50? and prices for a bushel of corn dropped 30?. As McGovern later proclaims to the senate in his speech in paragraph nineteen, projected numbers â€Å"do not take into consideration the tremendous increase in cost of production for crop year 1980 for farmers, coupled by depressed markets. † This act, indirectly associated with rising tensions also causing the U. S. to fortify the mujahidin, made live very hard for farmers. The Russian Grain Embargo left a great mark on agrarian society in both the United States and the Soviet Union, but moreso in the U. S. This statement demonstrates the irony behind the embargo. The harm done to the USSR was substantial, though. One may say that the Russian Grain Embargo went with the hard-line policy Reagan put forth toward the USSR, but this argument is invalidated by the financial burdens on America and the Soviet Union. Subsequently in his speech, George McGovern states in paragraph twenty, â€Å"The U. S. omestic blow to the agricultural community can reasonably be concluded to be greater than the one we are delivering, at least in the long run and at least in economic terms. † Plus, Russia was coming off a record low year for crop production, further supporting this act’s injustification. Despite the fact that the Russian Embargo Act was mainly a burden to farm society, it also proved or will have proven to be a burden to other important parts of society. The Russian Grain Embargo also devastated both the United States and the Soviet Union in ways other than agriculturally including everyday citizens. In paragraph eighteen McGovern alludes to his great statistical knowledge, noting that American taxpayers compensated for the debt of the Russian Grain Embargo by paying a sum of $3. 8-5 million. The credibility of the United States as a reliable trade partner skyrocketed due to the embargo. The administration of former President Jimmy Carter probably did not foresee this outcome or even think about it. Another outcome of the act was expanded herd slaughter in Russia. Russians thus consumed bad or in some cases unsanitary meat because of the lack of U.  S. meat shipments. Instead of wasting our time creating unnecessary policies or embargoes or groundlessly creating a powerful Afghan resilient force, the Unites States should have seized other important opportunities. For example, during the period in which the United States sent weapons to the mujahidin, Afghanistan’s neighboring country Pakistan developed a nuclear-weapon program. This is ironic because limiting nuclear-weaponry in any place was apparently supposed to be a chief concern of America, yet we did nothing about it. Pakistan could have shared nuclear secrets with its ally neighbors, thus jeopardizing American security. Benjamin Frankel wrote about the possibility that Pakistan could eventually use their nuclear weapons. In that case, America would certainly regret not committing itself to the issue. Before acting, we have to first ponder all implications – the pros and cons. Either the various leaders of the United States from 1979 to 1989 did not do this or they misevaluated. When a country is already on an nevitable path to its downfall, spending a large amount of money to try to hasten it is unnecessary. Blocking trade to that country is inessential and dumb if all parties involved are negatively affected like in the case of the Russian Grain Embargo. In the end, the Unites States and Soviet Union were burdened by their shortsighted approaches; ergo, we should learn from their mistakes and attempt to fix any remaining consequences. Unfortunately, we may one day have to endure the reper cussions of not taking action if a Middle Eastern country sets off a nuclear bomb.

Classic glacial and post glacial landforms of snowdonia

Classic glacial and post glacial landforms of snowdonia Cwm Idwal (CI) is a Cirque: which is a glacially eroded semi circular steep walled basin, cirques commonly contain a lake this is what Llyn Idwal is. The Younger Dryas period was when CI was formed as a cirque, around 12,000 years ago, in the UK the event was called the Loch Lomond Stidial (The BBC, 2002). Various landforms that are associated with glacial and post-glacial are found in this area, with using a base map and Google Maps of the area we were able to determine some landforms before going into the field. By doing this, we managed to predict the Ice Flow Direction and where the Moraine Ridges were in the landscape. * Next to the footpath, on appendix 1 grid reference 360001:359004, we can see an Erratic from the annotation on the map that the erratic is small. Appendix 2, figure 1 shows a field sketch of the erratic and rough measurements of 7 meters long and 2 meters high. An erratic is a boulder carried by glacial ice from the origin usually in a different bedrock type on destination (Hug, 1998). * Roche Moutonnà ©e landforms Commonly occur in clusters (Bennett and Glasser, 1996, p118). However, this example on the base map in appendix 1 is a singular mass at 359009: 264009. The mass is 10 meters long and 1.5 meters high as shown in appendix 2 figure 3 of my field sketches. the smooth end faces the direction of flow whilst the other side is steeper (Summerfield, 1993). * * The Degraded Rock Wall with loose rock debris is roughly 200 meters high, this was found in appendix 1 at 359008: 264007.Being around 400 meters across. The rock debris can be highlighted gratefully by appendix 2, figure 5, on Google maps you cannot see rock debris or scree very clearly, this is why fieldwork is vital for identification. à   (Google Maps, 2009) * * The Glacially Eroded and Steepened Rock Wall on appendix 1 is located at 358002: 264007, is typical of a cirque. The landform is located at the heads of deep valleys (Summerfield, 1993, p274) * * A Hanging Valley is formed from glaciations, being eroded by a small glacier; the valley sits up above Cwm Valley. In appendix 1 the location is 358002: 264008 and finishes around 359008: 263001. You can see the layout of the hanging valley in appendix 2, figure 9. A typical feature of a hanging valley is a waterfall or stream which can be seen easily on my field sketch. * * Hummocky Moraine is formed from a high debris concentration its an irregular collection of mounds and enclosed hollows (Bennett and Glasser, 1996, p231). These mounds can be seen clearly in appendix 2, figure 8, the cluster is 80 meters wide and 115 meters length ways. The amount on CI is two small belts either side of Llyn Idwal in appendix 1 at 358005: 264003 and 358003: 264004. * * Infilled Lake Basin is dammed by a rock lip, the movement of the ice in the Younger Dryas period created a deep basin (Owen and Green, 1997). Llyn Idwal is from 50- 305 meters wide and 625 meters long. Appendix 1 locates the lake basin starting at 358004: 359002. The field sketch on appendix 2, figure 7, shows the flat lake basin and the lip in the far distance of the sketch. * * Whalebacks are parts of bedrock the ice has moved over and so have been smoothed and rounded all over erosion. In appendix 1 the whalebacks are located at 360006: 264001. They range from 145 meters long and 40 meters wide. Post glacial landforms develop after the glaciation period, landforms highlighted in appendix 4 such as degraded rock wall, forming truncated spurs happen due to weathering. Physical weathering dominates cold climates such as CI. Freeze thaw happens when temperature is around 0 degrees, water in joints freeze and expand by around 10%, weakening the surrounding rock. Physical weathering affects the majority of glacial and post glacial features on appendix 3, with exception to the infilled lake basin. Pressure release from the former ice sheet covering the rock produces sheet joints parallel to the ground surface, therefore encourages further weathering. Hydrolysis affects feldspar as the water combines with certain minerals in the rock. When weathered it produces Na, K and Mg ions which are clay minerals.Organic action is produced by the action of animals and plant roots braking up the rock. Roots seep through existing cracks as they grow and thicken they increase the pressure on the cracks causing them to fracture and expand. In a wet environment, such as CI, the growth rate of vegetation is high. Weathering is influenced by climate, underlying geology, vegetation cover, relief and aspect. The geology is hard rock, made up of felsic tuff, an igneous rock rich in light coloured minerals such as feldspar and silica (quartz) (Hug, 1998). The rock has an equigranular texture, and is cooled very slowly and is intrinsic, slow cooling enables the minerals to be very small and confined. Tiff is a hard volcanic rock composed of compacted volcanic ash. Igneous rocks are more resistant than sedimentary, they are older rocks found in upland areas such as North West Wales. Due to the release of pressure from the glacier melting the rock developed cracked joints and bedding planes which causes water to enter the rock, therefore the amount of joints increases the weathering. The chemical composition of the rock determines the vulnerability of weathering. The granite and feldspar are prone to hydrolysis (Alden, 2006). Vegetation cover is important, organic acids from plants and other matter increase chemical weathering on Cwm Idwal. Due to the low vegetation cover , the organic acids released from bacteria and respiration of the plant roots only produce a small increase in the carbon dioxide for chemical weathering. Relief and Aspect is a major part of CI, it is a mountainous area, exposed to rain and extreme temperatures, the area is vulnerable to physical processes such as freeze thaw. Gravity has more force on steep slopes, so weathered material is removed quickly, such as a steepened rock wall. Not like the more gentle slopes in CI such as the degraded rock wall with a debris cone which is scree build up. Geomorphological mapping is a brilliant way of accessing an area of interest that people go too. Photographs from people previously going to the area is a brilliant example of secondary data, comprising of brilliant detail. This can include being able to see the proper image of the slopes and the landforms such as scree slopes and degraded rock walls. In appendix 4 lies the photographs which were taken from the trip. This can be harder to see from aerial photographs as the picture quality is lower the more you zoom in, conversely, you can get a scale for the landforms and find out the size. Areas that people are unable to climb are easily viewed from aerial photographs therefore has an important part. However, both of these techniques have fixed viewpoints and so acquiring a whole virtual picture of an area before going is impossible. Field mapping is a longer process which you have to be at the area of study. However, for the viewer it is an in depth analysis with a virtual picture of the whole area. Problems with this method are that areas that are inaccessible due to not having safety equipment cannot be viewed. This is the one major flaw with this approach, landforms associated with this problem are hanging valleys and v shaped valleys. This is where aerial photographs are beneficial. In conclusion, aerial photographs are congenial to work with for preliminary study of a location; however field work is needed to incorporate understanding of the area. Nothing is more prominent than a 3D view of the work area. Additionally, photographs, aerial pictures and Google maps are a necessity when trying to understand the location prior to visiting to enable building up a picture and specifying what parts you want to specialise in. Word Count: 1,365 References Alden A. (2006) Equigranular Texture in About Geology [online]. http://geoglogy.about.com/od/more_igrocks/ig/igroxtextures/igtexequigranular.htm [accessed 21/11/2009] The BBC (2002) Younger Dryas- the Ice Ages last big blast [online]. www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A760240#footnote3 [accessed 17/11/2009] Bennett M.R. and Glasser N.F (1996), Glacial Geology, 1st edition, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, West Sussex, England. Chapter 6, p116-134. Chapter 9, p231-235. Geography High (2008) Post-Glacial Landforms [online]. www.geographyhigh.connectfree.co.uk/s3glacgeoghighpostglacland.html [accessed 17/11/2009] Google Maps (2009) Google Maps UK [online] http://maps.google.co.uk [accessed 17/11/2009] Hug K. (1998) An outline of American Geography- Glossary [online]. www.let.rug.nl/usa/GEO/glossary.htm [accessed 17/11/2009] Maltman A.J, Hubbard B. and Hambrey M.J (2000), deformation of glacial materials in Geological Society Special Publication. Number 176, p321-323. One Geology, NE Geology (2009) Making Geological Map Data of the Earth Accessible [online] http://portal.onegeology.org/ [accessed 17/11/2009] Owen S. and Green J. (1997) National Parks in the UK, 1st edition, Stanley Thornes, Cheltenham, England. P11-13. Reynolds Geo- Sciences Ltd (2003) Guidelines for Geomorphological Mapping in Glacial Hazards and Risk Management [online] www.geologyuk.com/mountain_hazards_group/pdf/Appendix_A5.pdf [accessed 22/11/2009] Summerfield M.A. (1993) Global Geomorphology, 1st edition, Longman, Essex, England. Chapter 11, p272-280. Turnbill R. (2009) Granite and Grit: A Walkers Guide to the Geology of British Mountians, 1st edition, Frances Lincoln Ltd, London. P101.

Cultural Myths :: essays research papers

We are considered fortunate to live in the world that we do today. Material things seem to be bountiful, science and technology simply keeps on advancing, and we are all busy and hard at work in school or making money to achieve certain things in life by whatever means. In particular, science and technology has introduced so many significant inventions and conveniences to society that we cannot help but feel that we need to have these things. The products and services out there being advertised and sold are glamorized to appear faultless so that our attention is drawn to the benefits. Unfortunately, there are drawbacks and the fact that these inventions and conveniences are supposed to be quick and helpful could be a mere myth. This might lead one to ask if all the things we think we need to help us are really conveniences or merely burdensome. An example of something that is very useful and convenient, but at the same time could be very problematic would be the computer. Uses for computers have reached new heights. Aside from using them for word processing, computers serve as a source of entertainment with games and the Internet, are a means of communication, and we are able to shop in our underwear now if that’s what is preferred. The Internet alone can have you sitting in the same place for hours at a time because of all its possibilities. However, along with all of its advantages come a computer’s weaknesses. Putting a spotlight on the Internet, what poses a concern to me would be the safety of it all. Nowadays, we can not be certain that what we perceive to be private information still remains to be so. When we make purchases over the Internet, so much information is available to the person sitting on the other end, which can in turn wind up in the hands of many others without our knowledge. It takes so much more time to make sure your information is secure with passwords and usernames. Wouldn’t it simply be easier to go out and buy what you need instead of worrying about what kind of personal information could be leaking out everywhere? It would save a lot of worry and one’s sanity. However, one might agree that it saves them time to do their grocery shopping at home while they can still watch the kids or fill their prescriptions without leaving the house with swollen lips because of an allergic reaction.

Beware of Your Washing Machine and its Shiftless Partner, the Dryer :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Beware of Your Washing Machine and its Shiftless Partner, the Dryer Professor’s comment: This student’s writing embodies a peculiar configuration of literary polish, linguistic facility, playful authorial self-awareness, and unadulterated goofiness. It is proudly, but not without trepidation, that I submit this essay to 123HelpMe and unleash the elegant lunacy of Rob Geis upon an unsuspecting world. Around the world, across America, even here in town, there is a crime occurring—a robbery of unguessed proportions and most of us aren’t even aware of it.It happens every week, yet we blithely aid and abet the criminals, willingly, if unconsciously, destroying the evidence of their heinous offence. These criminals are everywhere. They can usually be found working in pairs. They lurk in the dark corners of our home, or even in well-lit shops. The patrons of these storefront locations cast furtive glances at one another, feeding coins into slots as they are slowly, quietly robbed of their most prized possessions. I am talking about, of course, a theft of laundry. The criminals are your washing machine and its shiftless partner, the dryer. Manufacturers of these devious devices paint them white in order to enhance their image of cleanliness and honesty, but behind this friendly exterior there lies a crafty heart. Laundromat models are even equipped with glass doors. Through these doors, we watch, hypnotized, as our belongings are spun away from us. While discussing this laundry larceny, I refer not to the occasional petty pilferage of the odd argyle sock, in which every washer/dryer seems to indulge. This well-known and carefully documented occurrence is merely the tip, as it were, of the iceberg. Long misunderstood as pure coincidence, the lost-sock phenomenon was finally explained in an episode of the cartoon â€Å"Ren and Stimpy.† In this episode, the two fearless adventurers travel to an alternate universe, where they find an extremely smelly planet, which contains, amongst other sundry items, all the socks that have ever disappeared from our world. In retrospect, this kleptomaniacal attitude toward socks should have tipped me, of all people, off a little sooner. I have come to realize that I have been granted the gift of the Virgo, which is my astrological sign. Virgos are renowned for their attention to detail, although there are a few unenlightened souls who refer to us as obsessive/compulsive at best and anal-retentive at worst.

The History and Theory of Magical Realism Essay -- Literature Essays L

The History and Theory of Magical Realism      Ã‚  Ã‚   Fantasy, Magical, Supernatural, Sublime, and Realism are all several genres of literature that may be familiar to many people. However, there may be one that is not as well-known as these: Magical Realism. Although Magical Realism is mostly common in the Latin American countries, one may wonder where and how Magical Realism got its start. On the other hand, one may simply wonder what some of the characteristics of Magical Realism are. By looking at the history and theory of Magical Realism as well as some of its characteristics and influences, these questions will be answered. Interestingly, the term "Magical Realism" was first used in 1925 by a German art critic, Franz Roh. In his essay, "Magic Realism: Post-Expressionism," Roh used the term "Magical Realism" to actually characterize a style of painting instead of a style of literature (15). However, there are still at least two different viewpoints as to where and when Magical Realism truly had its start. In Angel Flores' essay, "Magical Realism in Spanish America," he claims that Magical Realism had its basis in the works of Franz Kafka. Furthermore, Flores thinks that the year 1935 was the year that Magical Realism had its beginning in Latin America because this was the year that Jorge Luis Borges' work, A Universal History of Infamy, appeared in Buenos Aires. After the appearance of Borges' works, several other writers began to follow his style, giving Magical Realism its rise in popularity in the years of 1940 to 1950 (Flores 113). In his essay "Magical Realism in Spanish American Literature" Luis Leal disagrees with Flores' viewpoint. Leal does not think that Magical Realism had its growth during the 1940 to 195... ...Ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris. Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1995: 125-141. Flores, Angel. "Magical Realism in Spanish American Fiction." Magical Realism. Theory, History, Community. Ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris. Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1995: 109-116. "Garcia Marquez - Biography." 14 Jan. 2001 <http://www.themodernword.com/gabo/gabo_biography.html.>. Leal, Luis. "Magical Realism in Spanish American Literature." Magical Realism. Theory, History, Community. Ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris. Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1995: 119-123. "Magical Realism." 8 Jan. 2001 <http://www.iskl.edu.my/~Breen_O'Reilly/Chronicle2/page2.html>. Roh, Franz. "Magic Realism: Post-Expressionism." Magical Realism. Theory, History, Community. Ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris. Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1995: 15-30.   

Disparities in Health Care

Problems of Disparities in Health Care Insurance The United States leads the world in spending on health care. Yet , other countries spending substantially less than the United States have healthier populations. America’s performance is marred by deep inequalities linked to income, health insurance coverage, race, ethnicity, geography, and – critically – access to care. Employer-based Insurance plans Income The United States is the only wealthy country with no universal health insurance system. Its mix of employer-based private insurance and public coverage has never reached all Americans.All working Americans are categorized based on annual income – top-income (earning on average $210,100 annually), higher-middle-income (earning an average of $84,800 annually), lower-middle-income earning on average $41,500), and bottom-income (earning an average of $14,800 annually) (Auguste, Laboissiere, & Mendonca, 2009). As the general population knows that those are in the both top-income category and higher-middle-income category can afford any expenses that are incurred in facilities, doctor visits, ER visits, etc. ithout any hindrance (Auguste et al. , 2009). The lower-middle-income and bottom-income population have much harder time in paying for services because it puts them in a tight budget. Paying for out-of-pocket costs can be detrimental to one's credit and often those patients are sent to collections if they can't pay. As reported in the 2011 study done in Arizona by Herman, Rissi, and Walsh, it also confirmed that individuals who have higher incomes were able to pay for medical expenses without going through financial hardships. CostIts been reported that immigrants have less access to care due to having no insurance plans and the cost of services when they are sick than the general population born in the United States (Pandey, 2010). In Herman et al. ‘s study (2011), out-of-pocket medical expenses caused financial hardships an d that top-income individuals were able to cover cost of medical services without hardships. It has been made known by many employers are making employees be responsible for a portion of health care costs by raising premiums or deductibles (Auguste et al. , 2009).Because of rising costs of deductibles (out-of-pocket costs) and the rising cost of premiums, employees are opting-out of enrolling into employer-based health insurance plan saying that to get the coinsurance amount, the deductible amount that they have to meet is out of their financial budget (Quinn, 2011). Race/Ethnicity and Environment Evidence of racial and ethnic disparities in health-care is, with few exceptions, remarkably consistent across a range of illnesses and health-care services. These disparities are associated with socioeconomic differences.Its been reported that immigrants are less likely to use the health care system yet alone have no health insurance coverage (Pandey, 2010). Its not only immigrants who ha ve trouble getting care, but different nationalities in the United States population have trouble as well – just to name a few – American Indians, Asian Americans, Hispanics, populations that live in rural and urban areas, and the general population ranging from infants to senior citizens (Copeland, 2005). Especially the Hispanic or Latino population were less likely to seek care (Herman, et al. , 2011).African American populations are the most researched when it comes to health care issues. For example, a study was done on racial disparities in exposure, susceptibility, and access to health care in the United States H1N1 Influenza pandemic which reported that Hispanics were at greater risk of exposure, however Blacks were a lot more susceptible in contracting H1N1 (Quinn, 2011). Access to Care Unequal access to health care has clear links to health outcomes. The uninsured are less likely to have regular outpatient care, so they are more likely to be hospitalized for a voidable health problems.The lack of transportation, health insurance, providers, appointment access, and inconvenient location of doctors offices caused many people to have poor health (Copeland, 2005). In 2011, a study in Arizona was performed to see is access to care was an issue among the residents. The study found that people who were uninsured had problems paying bills which prevented the ability to seek care and receive treatment (Herman, et al. , 2011). Individuals with higher incomes were able to seek care as well as ace/ethnicity background were indicators that individuals were less likely to seek care (Herman, et al. , 2011). Conclusion Income level and race/ethnicity in relation to environment, cost of medical services, access to care, play big roles as to why there are disparities in health care insurance. References Auguste, B. G. , Laboissiere, M. , & Mendonca, L. T. (2009). How health care costs contribute to income disparity in the United States. Mckinsey Quarterly, (2), 50-51. Copeland, V. (2005). African Americans: Disparities in Health Care Access and Utilization. Health &Social Work, 30(3), 265. Herman, P. E. (2011). Health Insurance Status, Medical Debt, and Their Impact on Access to Care in Arizona. American Journal Of Public Health, 101(8), 1437. doi:10. 2105/AJPH. 2010. 300080 Quinn, S. (2011). Racial Disparities in Exposure, Susceptibility, and Access to Health Care in the US H1N1 Influenza Pandemic. American Journal Of Public Health, 101(2), 285. doi:10. 2105/AJPH. 2009. 188029 Pandey, S. (2010). Health Insurance Disparities among Immigrants: Are Some Legal Immigrants More Vulnerable Than Others?. Health & Social Work, 35(4), 267.

Ib Biology Hl Notes

Genes and Genetics 1. 2. each chromosome exists as two genetically identical chromatids attached to their centromere. Each chromosome appears as two chromatids attached to a centromere. In the first meiotic division chromosomes align in homologous pairs. Points of contact form between members of the same homologous pair. The points of contact or crossing over between members of a homologous pair are the chiasmata. 3. The homologous pairs move to the equator of the cell. Equal lengths of the chromatids of the same homologous pair have broken off and crossed over. The chromosomes align at random and independantly.Only one possible arrangement is shown. 4. Homologous pairs align at random at the equator of the cell. This shows the early separation of the chromosomes of each of the homologous pairs. 5. Homologous pairs are separated. This shows the cell at an early stage of meiotic division. The cell membrane is starting to pinch inwards. 6. The cell divides to form two cells each with a haploid set of chromosomes. Cell division is complete and two cells containing a haploid set of chromosomes are formed. 7. In the second meiotic division the chromosomes in each cell align independently and randomly at the equator of the cell. . The chromatids in each cell are separated. The chromatids are pulled towards the opposite poles of the cell. 9. The cells divide. The cell membrane is starting to pinch inwards. 10. Cell division is complete, resulting in the formation of four cells each with the haploid number. 11. Meiosis – Functions ? ? Halving the chromosome number – meiosis consists of two nuclear divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II) but the chromosomes replicate once. Producing four daughter cells. Each are haploid Producing Genetic Variety – through prophase I and through random assortment during metaphase I.In addition, random fertilisation also produces variety since any gamete has an equal chance on combining. Crossing Over – during pro phase one, homologous chromosomes combine to form bivalent so maternal and paternal chromosomes are adjacent. Homologous pairs contain same genes but different alleles. They line up and non-sister chromatids break then they rejoin in corresponding position on other chromatid. Region this occurs is called the chiasma (chiasmata). Point where this is in random but not all chromatids form a chiasma and some dont happen at all. Therefore, chromatids keep alleles.Monohybrid and Dihybrid Inheritance0 There Codominance – both alleles have an effect on a phenotype neither allele is recessive multiple allels – 3 alleles in blood typed these are Ia , Ib and ‘i' (Io) these 3 alleles make up the phenotype and genotypes in the blood gene. Sex Link Genes Autosome (normal chromosome) pairs are said to be linked. Meaning they contain the same locus on a gene. HOMEWORK 2 b) Genotypes Gametes F1 Genotypes Phenotypes – AB BO A B B O AB AO BB BO AB, A, -B, B 4 b) Bw Tl Male G ametes- B,w T,l ww ll Female Gametes – w,w,l,l B w w Bw Bw w ww ww ) Polygenic inheritance of skin colour – Depends on the amount of pigment that is produced in the skin. Melanin synthesis is controlled by genes. The degree of pigmentation can range from very dark to very pale. Several genes are involved in skin colour determination and these produce continuous variation. Each gene has two alleles so there are numerous outcomes for example when three genes are involved there are seven outcomes. One allele M contributes to melanin. 7. 4. 6 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Ribosomes are made of two subunits, large and small Small subunits binds to the first codon on the mRNA.This is the initiation part of translation. The first codon is usually AUG and codes for the amino acid methionine. Large Sub-units will now bind and two binding sites for tRNA sit over the first two codons Transfer RNA with the correct with the correct anticodon will lock into the first tRNA binding site and f orm hydrodgen bonds to the first codon. The second tRNA will now enter into the second binding site as it has the correct anti-codon Each tRNA has its own specific amino acid, and now a peptide bond forms between these amino acids.This is the beginning of elongation ( joining amino acids to make a polypeptide) the first tRNA now breaks away and moves into the exit site and now the next codon has to be read. the small subunit shifts down the mRNA in a 5†² 3†² direction followed by the large subunit the second tRNA now moves down into the neighbouring binding site and the third tRNA can now move onto the mRNA and locks them to the exposed binding site another peptide bond is formed this process of the ribosome moving along the mRNA is called translocation eventually the ribosome reaches the last codon and it has no corresponding anti-codon so no tRNA will bind. This is a biological full-stop and this is termination.The ribosome sub units break apart, releasing the polypeptid e chain, which will now coil into its secondary and tertiary structures to form a protein. CroCrossing Over (p237) ? ? ? ? Crossing over occurs during prophase one. Chromosomes shorten and coil and homologous pairs of chromosomes come together form a bivalent Chromosomes ontain the same genes but have different alleles. Two segments then rejoin from broken chromatids at corresponding positions. Mendel's law of Independent assortment When gametes are formed, the separation of one pair of alleles into the new cells is independent of the separation of any other pairs. or; either pair of alleles is equally likely to be inherited with either of another pair. production but m does not making MMMMMM the darkest and mmmmmmm the palest. Polymerase chain reaction is used to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA.It can be useful when only a small amount of DNA is available but a large amount is required to undergo testing. We can use DNA from blood, semen, tissues and so on from crime scen es for example. The PCR requires high temperature and a DNA polymerase enzyme from Thermus aquaticus (a bacterium that lives in hot springs). Sample is heated which denatures DNA and separates into two strands. Thermophlils Aquaticus is a bacterium which Polymerase increases rate of base pair creation. Replication in a few hours 4. 4. In gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electrical field and are separated according to their size. Electric charge separatees DNA and allows to see natural variation in DNA Restriction Enzymes cut to produce varying fragment sizes. magnetic field so all DNA (-ve charged) move different distances and then are stained. this leaves a DNA profile Chamber, power supply, gel it doesn't mater 4. 4. 4 Organisms have short sequences of bases which are repeated many times. These are called satellite DNA. These repeated sequences vary in length from person to person.The DNA is copied using PCRand then cut up into small fragments using restriction enz ymes. Gel electrophoresis separates fragmented pieces of DNA according to their size and charge. This gives a pattern of bands on a gel which is unlikely to be the same for two individuals. This is called DNA profiling. DNA profiling can be used to determine paternity and also in forensic investigations to get evidence to be used in a court case for example. Human Genome ? It is now easier to study how genes influence human development. ? It helps identify genetic iseases. ? It allows the production of new drugs based on DNA base sequences of genes or the structure of proteins coded for by these genes. ? It will give us more information on the origins, evolution and migration of humans. ? 20,000 – 25,000 ? Carried out in 1990 to map entire DNA base sequence the whole genome. 3 billion pairs in 2003. ? Spots added to a solid surface. Can determine levels of thousands of genes by measuring mRNA spots on microarray. Generating profile of expression on a cell Pharmacogenomics â⠂¬â€œ drugs which target specific genomes.